The following description is provided to assist the understanding of the reader. None of the information provided or references cited is admitted to be prior art.
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. However, due to the heterogeneity and composite nature of concrete, its final composition can vary. Concrete typically has a high compressive strength. The tensile strength of concrete, however, is relatively low. The lack of tensile strength can be compensated for by using reinforcements, e.g., steel rebar, which can increase its resilience. However, even when concrete is reinforced, it can still crack as a result of applied structural loading, shrinking, and thermal deformations. Consequently, concrete maintenance is virtually unavoidable.
Cement is an essential element of concrete. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is presently the most common type of cement. In addition to concrete, OPC is an element of mortar and non-specialty grouts. OPC consists of approximately 90% Portland cement clinker, up to 5% gypsum, and up to 5% of other minor constituents. When OPC is reacted with water, a hydrolysis reaction occurs and the cement constituents form a solid calcium silicate hydrate (C—S—H) gel. However, the manufacture of OPC in an energy intensive process that involves heating high volumes of raw materials to approximately 1400° C. Accordingly, carbon dioxide (CO2) is generated from burning fossil fuels to reach these temperatures. Moreover, one of the basic raw materials used in producing OPC is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), i.e., limestone. Limestone decomposes to form calcium oxide (CaO), which, in turn, releases additional geologically sequestered CO2. CO2 emissions likely contribute to an increase in the atmospheric and surface temperatures of the Earth. Such temperature increases are predicted to have serious environmental consequences.